Historical Concerns of Indigenous Peoples and How it Affects Our Relationships with Local Waterways​​​​​​​​

 

In 1606, the Iroquois Nation resided between the 35th and 40th parallels of latitude – now known as the occupying colonial States and Commonwealth of Virginia, North Carolina, and Maryland–, more than 30 tribes were under the Iroquois Nation. Wherein, the Algonquin region primarily resided in Virginia and within such, the Nansemond Tribe inhabited what is now known as Norfolk County under the Powhatan Chiefdom (Tsenacomoco) of K’iche-sepi-ack [“country on a great river”]. This is from which the anglicized ‘Chesapeake’ derives.

 

The K'iche-sepi-ack and Nansemond Peoples were rather sustainable, considering their size of nearly fifty thousand. Nansemond can be translated to “fishing point”, whereas the tribe hunted along the James River and collected pearls from the oysters for adornation on their regalia. It is not well documented, however, the tribes are also known to have developed bridges using natural elements in order to establish safer trade routes. This knowledge is symbolically expressed in the Blue Connections Mural through a canoe riding into the sunset, and through the oysters and a single pearl in the first panel.

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The detailed geographical information on the historical region is attributed to Captain John Smith of the English Jamestown settlement in 1608 when a crew patrolled the entirety of K’iche-sepi-ack in order to determine prime locations for colonization, during which the posse recorded locations and names of the inhabitants. This map has become a primary resource for pre-occupied K’iche-sepi-ack. Shortly after occupation in 1610, the Anglo-Powhatan War displaced the Nansemond tribe, where most were resettled in the Great Dismal Swamp and amongst other surrounding tribes. Due to the following three decades of insurmountable violence, the descendents of said refugees are still displaced today. The area inhabited by the Nansemond was part of what was eventually called Norfolk County which included areas of present day Chesapeake and Virginia Beach.

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The economically-incentivized aggression towards the Indigenous populations continued long after the end of the Anglo-Powhatan War– to mean, it is still occuring. The Nationality Act of 1790 further demeaned the pre-occupying civilizations of the Indigenous Peoples by denying them rights of citizenship. In 1833, oppressive race-based law introduced by legislator John Murdaugh was intended to not affect the Indigenous as certified members of the tribe were excluded from the repressive restrictions of “negroes and mulattoes”, these certificates of ancestry were limited to those who had not been displaced from the Powhatan territories.  It was not until 1860 that the racial identifier ‘Indian’ was pronounced in the U.S. Census (USCB, 2021). Further instances of economically-incentivized ethnogenesis are found in the 1924 “Racial Integrity Act” (wherefore the Act stood until it was found unconstitutional by Loving v. Virginia ((1967)).This refusal to certify ancestry, disallow the certification of marriage between whites and non-whites, and other aggressions against the resettled refugees has led to non-acknowledgement on behalf of the Commonwealth’s government– and still affects the tribal community of today in terms of federal funding (socio-economic marginalization), culture and language revitalization (systemic discrimination), dispossession of ancestral lands (territorial dispossession), and intergenerational trauma. Today, the Nansemond headquarters is in Suffolk and received Commonwealth recognition in 1985 and Federal recognition in 2018 and thus renamed the Nansemond Indian Nation. It is important to note that the Nansemond Indian Nation is not the sole tribe of the immediate region, however, it is the most well documented and most prevalent Nation which spanned southern Virginia and northern North Carolina. 

The Nansemond provides good stewardship of water. While there are contemporary efforts to repatriate on behalf of the occupiers, these are often forced or coerced collaborations such as the Nansemond Environmental Program, which is funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA), Indian Environmental General Assistance Program (GAP), and other funding sources. The focus is on improving water quality and coastal resilience through several initiatives such as oyster restoration, invasive plant removal, and native plant restoration. Due to government funding, it is uncertain whether the Nation is able to operate within and manage the waterways as they wish. The symbolization of the Nations’ relation to the Mural is the introduction to the Mural in the first panel through the oyster beds and the marsh.

Effects of Pollution and Climate on Norfolk's Waterways

 

There are several aspects of human activity– primarily chemical-, light-, and noise pollutants– which drastically affect the progression of climate change. The general understanding of water pollution is when non-environmentally safe materials enter the water, toxifying the natural reservoirs to which the waterways lead (Denchak, 2023). The total chemicals entering the ocean rose by 12% between 2003 and 2012. Although the level coming from North America and Europe dropped by sixty percent, during that same period, the Pacific Ocean rose by fifty percent. Companies and scientists alike have collaborated to encourage reduced dumping and general pollutant spillage; however, the oil spillage from factories, farms, and cities also contaminate the waterways, which contribute to about one third of the estimated one million tons of oil spillage annually (Denchak, 2023). Through research, it was found that trash is the most potent example of pollution which directly affects the waterways. The second is overfishing as it expedites the process of habitat degradation and decreases the water quality greatly. Light pollution affects animal behaviors with migration patterns, wake-sleep habits, and habitat formation. Possibly the most subtly destructive pollution is Noise Pollution: The presence of ships' sonar and oil rigs are amplified underwater and disrupts the communication between animals that use echolocation like dolphins and whales which change their migration and mating cycles. These wastes can remain for a millenia. Norfolk has been urgently adapting their infrastructure to withstand the expected rising sea; this includes strategic urban landscaping, living shorelines, green roofing, and biking access to reduce pollution and greenhouse gasses (Hafner, 2023). The effects of human activity on the waterways has been symbolized through acts of dumping, plastic bottles and trash bags litter in the third panel. Along with the presence of shipping containers and port activity to symbolize the noise pollution.

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Effects of the Industrial Complex on Norfolk's Waterways

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By the early 1700s there were around two hundred mills which were erected along the waterways of Virginia since the settlers had colonized around ninety percent of the region; this action led to the direct maladaptation in the natural ecosystem and poor redistribution of fresh water amongst the colony, which in turn impacted the migration of several indigenous species– notably fish. Historically, Norfolk was established as a port town for domestic and international trade, due to this, the city has become a hub for maritime affairs, aerospace and aviation matters, and distribution and logistics. The University rests on the bank of the Elizabeth River, across the way from Craney Island Naval Supply Center and the US Coast Guard Portsmouth Base, and aside Norfolk Southern Lamberts Point Yard. This advantageous location supports a student's choice when deciding between four business programs related to maritime, several oceanography related programs, dedicated research centers for waterway ‘innovation’, and even a surf club. If the cultural habit of exploitative practices the settling English engage in is considered, it can be assumed that the destabilization of the current regional ecosystem is attributed to the actions of the occupying settler colony that was the King’s colony of Virginia; especially considering the practices have neither reduced in occurrence nor the utilization of environmentally-hazardous products over the last couple of centuries as the technological advances continue. 

The exploitation of humans by the settlers on occupied Turtle Island (also known as the United States of America) is rather infamous. The settlers superimposed titles upon the exploited humans, such as “indentured servant” primarily used for those of Irish-descent, “slave” which was used predominantly with those of African descent, and free non-white peoples who were given no choice but to perform labor for the white settlers. These peoples had various occupations across occupied Turtle Island however, on the Chesapeake Bay, enslaved peoples and servants were watermen– harvesting crabs and oysters, working on fishing and cargo boats, and so forth. Old Dominion has several initiatives through the Resilience Collaborative, which supports the local regions’ resilience to sea level rise; however, it is important to state that none of the industrial partners which Old Dominion engages with have committed to divestment from fossil fuels, which is a leading cause in the destabilization of the ecosystem. One of Old Dominion’s strategic goals of research is to protect the natural environment, it is in our hopes that the Aquatic Archive will call attention to these life threatening issues. The shipping industry is symbolized through a cargo ship and some shipping containers resting on the ocean floor, as well as with the Hampton Bridge and Tunnel. The Hampton Bridge overlooks Fort Monroe, which became a safehouse for the Underground Railroad in 1862. An underwater tunnel can be seen at the end of the painting with railroad tracks and broken shackles: This honors enslaved peoples and indentured servitude to local waterways. Old Dominion has been symbolized within the Mural with the signature Big Blue lion statue atop a shipping container. As it is estimated that the demand for global trade will more than double over the next thirty years, it may be imperative to further the discussion from reflection in forum to intentional and tangible action.

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Effects of Recreation Activities on Norfolk’s Waterways

 

Recreation in settler times was not that different than what is common today; they played outside, danced and sang, fished, crabbed and/or hunted, and rode horses– in bad weather they would play games, sew, or whittle (Central Rappahannock Regional Library, n.d.). This form of recreation has developed in the forms of bar culture, game sporting, sailing tournaments and other boat related activities, and heavy concert attendance, especially in downtown Norfolk. After urban development in the early 1900s, an amusement park called the Ocean View Amusement Park had been erected at the end of the trolley line to boost the economy (Visit Norfolk, n.d.). This may have had a direct impact on the development of such cultures. Due to the poor hygiene of American culture regarding recycling, trash processing, and street clean up, these recreational cultures heavily affect Norfolk’s waterways, especially in regard to single use plastics.

As stated previously, food and drink processing is a key industry of Norfolk. Contemporarily, aquaculture practices have supported the greater economy via injurious practices while historically the tribal harvesting supported the renewal of the natural reproduction cycle– even as they harvested in the same locations regularly (Virginia Museum of History and Culture, 2024). In a research study conducted by University of William and Mary in 1957, it was found that the colonists set a precedent for ignorant and egocentric harvesting practices which continues to deter sustainable exploitation (Mchugh & Bailey, n.d.). A bolstering economy has supported the establishment of several types of recreational-related industries such as; fishing, dining, bars, dive bars, breweries, food processing, tourist attractions, et cetera. These industries contribute to the top source of contamination in rivers and streams within the United States (Denchak, 2023). Norfolk inhabitants enjoy beautiful sunsets, boating, and many other water-related recreational activities that support the mental- and physical health and well-being of humanity. Inhabitants have the benefits of viewing a cornucopia of bird life, which is supported by the Norfolk Botanical Gardens, the Hermitage Foundation Museum, the Weyanoke Sanctuary– all which are endorsed by the Norfolk Birding Association. A Great Blue Heron, a Brown Pelican, and a family of Loons are portrayed in the first panel.i Recreation has been symbolized many times throughout the Mural, there is a couple fishing and crabbing in the first panel, a recreational kayak in the second, and the Norfolk skyline in the third panel.

 

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